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In Crassostrea gigas, combined mechanisms of sequence diversification (e.g. In the continuous fight with competitors, predators and pathogens, the evolutionary diversification of AMP types and gene families likely occurred through events of gene duplication, shuffling of functional elements and selection for variation at positions adjacent, or integral to, the conserved structural motifs. Among other structural features, a conserved γ-core motif originated from the bidirectional orientation of specific aminoacid residues including an invariant cysteine array has indicated the evolutionary relatedness of cysteine-stabilized α-β (CS-αβ) AMPs, kinocidins, invertebrate toxins and snake venoms: such unifying structure provides an interesting hypothesis for context-specific action modes, from the perturbation of negatively charged cell membranes and ion channels to the immunoregulatory functions. Host defense peptides are present in virtually all living organisms, with more than 30 AMPs expressed in humans and about 200 peptides identified in insects (approximately 1500 molecules very diverse in sequence and secondary structures are reported in specific databases). Like other invertebrates, bivalve molluscs rely on ancient and rapid defenses to fight potential pathogens, and gene-encoded antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are major humoral components of their immune system. and Betanodavirus (Nodaviridae) in other bivalves and fishes, respectively.
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With the exception of a few metazoan parasites which also somewhat affect the Mytilus species –, mussels seem refractory to diseases and could instead influence the prevalence of pathogens such as Perkinsus spp. Īt different latitudes, mussels face tidal and seasonal fluctuations, changeable pollutant loads and also the surrounding bioma with behavioral changes, metabolic adjustments and a variety of defense reactions –. edulis in southwest England and the Mediterranean mussel is now reported in Eastern Asia, California, Chile and Western Australia –. Mussel populations of the northern and southern hemisphere probably separated 0.54–1.31 million years ago, far after the trans-Arctic expansion towards North America, and before the divergence between the Atlantic and Mediterranean ecotypes. Mytilus species (Phylum Mollusca, Class Bivalvia) are intertidal filter-feeders distributed worldwide, anchored to hard substrates in dense communities and widely used as bio-sensors of coastal pollution. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.Ĭompeting interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.įunding: This study was funded by the European project FOOD-CT-2005-007103 ( ) and, in part, by the Italian Project 20084BEJ9F-PRIN08 ( ). Received: JAccepted: OctoPublished: November 7, 2011Ĭopyright: © 2011 Rosani et al. Ouzounis, The Centre for Research and Technology, Greece (2011) Massively Parallel Amplicon Sequencing Reveals Isotype-Specific Variability of Antimicrobial Peptide Transcripts in Mytilus galloprovincialis. Citation: Rosani U, Varotto L, Rossi A, Roch P, Novoa B, Figueras A, et al.